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Example of Shouldice Hospital Case Study Solved Answer

Abstract

This case study explores proposals for expanding the capacity of Shouldice Hospital, with a particular emphasis on preserving its unique organizational culture within a service delivery system. In addition to capacity and organizational considerations, it highlights the exemplary management of a specialized medical service facility that could potentially set a precedent for future advancements in the healthcare sector.

Introduction

Shouldice Hospital has long been celebrated for its exceptional hernia surgery services and unwavering commitment to patient satisfaction. As the demand for its services continues to surge, the hospital is confronted with the imperative of expanding its capacity while safeguarding its unique organizational culture. This case study scrutinizes various proposals aimed at augmenting the hospital’s capacity and contemplates their compatibility with the hospital’s distinctive culture, recognizing the potential they hold for pioneering transformative changes in the healthcare domain.

Problems Identification and Causes

• Capacity and Backlog Issues: One of the primary challenges facing Shouldice Hospital is its capacity constraints and the backlog of operations. The hospital operates with 90 beds, and while it maintains an efficient bed utilization rate, there is a growing demand for hernia surgeries. This demand has resulted in patients having to wait longer for their surgeries, potentially compromising their health and overall experience. The causes of these capacity and backlog issues are multifaceted. The hospital’s reputation for delivering exceptional hernia surgeries has led to an increased influx of patients, surpassing its current capacity.
• Imitation of Unique Methods: Another concerning issue is the imitation of Shouldice’s unique surgical methods by other doctors. Several medical practitioners claim to replicate the Shouldice technique, but their success rates do not match the hospital’s standards. This imitation not only poses a risk to patient safety but also tarnishes Shouldice’s impeccable reputation. The cause of this problem lies in the hospital’s distinctive surgical approach, which has gained widespread recognition, prompting others to attempt to replicate it without the requisite expertise and experience.
• Leadership in Hernia Surgery: Shouldice Hospital has set a longstanding objective to maintain its leadership position in the field of hernia surgery. However, achieving this objective amidst capacity constraints and competition from imitators has become increasingly challenging. The hospital’s leadership status is at risk due to the backlog of operations and the potential dilution of its unique surgical methods.
• Training New Surgeons: Another objective is to cultivate a new generation of surgeons skilled in hernia surgery. This goal is crucial for the hospital’s sustainability and continued excellence in patient care. However, recruiting and training new surgeons while simultaneously addressing the backlog issue and expanding capacity present complex challenges.
• Improving Patient Experience: Finally, Shouldice Hospital aims to enhance the overall patient experience. This objective is intertwined with the capacity issue since an expanded facility must not compromise the warm, communal, and patient-centric environment that has been integral to the hospital’s success.

These identified problems and their underlying causes necessitate careful consideration and strategic planning to ensure that Shouldice Hospital can continue to deliver outstanding hernia surgery services while safeguarding its unique culture and leadership position in the healthcare industry.

Preserving Organizational Culture

Preserving the unique organizational culture of Shouldice Hospital is imperative as the institution contemplates expansion to meet the growing demand for its specialized hernia surgery services. This culture is characterized by a commitment to providing exceptional medical care within a warm, communal, and patient-centric environment, setting Shouldice apart in the healthcare landscape.

At its core, Shouldice Hospital’s organizational culture revolves around delivering healthcare that transcends clinical excellence, embracing a holistic approach that prioritizes patients’ physical and emotional well-being. Patients don’t merely undergo surgeries; they become part of a supportive community where compassion and personalized care are paramount.

As the hospital explores expansion strategies, it must do so with utmost care to preserve these foundational values. Expansion should not compromise the essence of what makes Shouldice Hospital unique, and any approach must ensure the continuity of its patient-centric philosophy.

For instance, while increasing patient throughput might seem tempting to accommodate more individuals, it is crucial to avoid doing so at the expense of the personalized, communal atmosphere that patients cherish. Overcrowded waiting areas, hurried interactions, and a loss of the sense of belonging to a special community could erode the hospital’s distinct culture.

Drawing inspiration from successful healthcare institutions that have expanded while safeguarding their cultural identity can offer valuable insights. Mayo Clinic, known for its patient-centered approach, expanded to multiple locations while staying committed to its cultural dedication to patient care. By investing in staff training, effective communication strategies, and facility design, Mayo Clinic ensured that the patient experience remained at the core of its culture even with geographic expansion.

Preserving Shouldice Hospital’s culture during expansion calls for a focus on staff training and empowerment. New team members must fully embrace and embody the hospital’s values, ensuring that the patient-centered ethos is upheld. Thoughtful facility planning is also critical, maintaining the warm and communal atmosphere that patients have come to expect.

Capacity and Organizational Analysis

Current Bed Utilization

At present, Shouldice Hospital operates with a capacity of 90 beds, available seven days a week, resulting in a total of 630 available beds for patient care. The hospital’s current bed utilization is a critical metric that underscores the efficiency with which it manages its resources. Currently, 450 beds are in use, translating to a bed utilization rate of 71.43%.

This utilization rate signifies a careful balance that Shouldice Hospital has achieved between the provision of top-quality patient care and the optimization of its resources. It exemplifies the hospital’s commitment to maintaining service quality while judiciously managing its capacity.

The 71.43% bed utilization rate reflects a healthcare facility that is operating at an optimal equilibrium, ensuring that the needs of its patients are met while minimizing resource wastage. It is a testament to the hospital’s dedication to patient care and its ability to strike a balance between supply and demand.

This efficient utilization of beds has contributed to Shouldice Hospital’s reputation for delivering exceptional patient experiences and surgical outcomes. Patients receive the benefit of timely care within a communal and supportive environment, which is a hallmark of Shouldice’s unique organizational culture.

The current bed utilization rate not only indicates effective resource allocation but also highlights the hospital’s commitment to preserving its core values during times of increasing demand and potential expansion. It underscores the importance of maintaining this equilibrium as the hospital contemplates strategies to meet growing patient needs without compromising the essence of its unique culture.

Adding Operations on Saturday

To assess the impact of adding Saturday operations while keeping the daily surgery count at 30, a utilization table is constructed as follows:

With this adjustment, the hospital would perform 30 surgeries on each of the seven days, resulting in a total of 210 surgeries per week. This expanded schedule would increase bed utilization to 85.71%, up from the current 71.43%.

While adding Saturday operations appears to be a viable strategy for optimizing bed utilization, it introduces certain considerations and risks that must be carefully evaluated.

Firstly, there is the potential for staff fatigue and resource strain. Healthcare professionals, including surgeons and nursing staff, may find it challenging to maintain the same level of excellence and patient-centric care when working seven days a week. This could potentially compromise the warm and communal atmosphere that is integral to Shouldice Hospital’s culture.

Secondly, the expanded schedule may require additional operating rooms and support staff to ensure the same quality of care. Without proper resource allocation and staffing, the hospital may find it challenging to maintain its standards, and patients may experience longer waiting times or rushed interactions.

To mitigate these risks and ensure that the addition of Saturday operations aligns with the hospital’s values and objectives, Shouldice Hospital would need to invest in staff training, recruitment, and potentially, facility expansion. This would enable the hospital to meet the increased demand for surgeries while upholding its commitment to patient-centered care and preserving its unique culture.

Increasing Bed Capacity by 50%

Suppose Shouldice Hospital decides to pursue a significant expansion by increasing its bed capacity by 50%, raising the total number of beds from 90 to 135. This expansion could potentially enable the hospital to perform 45 operations per day; assuming surgeries are conducted five days a week.

However, this expansion proposal warrants a comprehensive analysis of the hospital’s existing resources and constraints (Author, 20XX). The hospital currently employs 12 surgeons, each capable of performing four surgeries per day, and it possesses five operating rooms with a maximum combined capacity of eight surgeries per day.

This existing infrastructure has limitations that need to be addressed to accommodate the proposed increase in bed capacity. The hospital would require additional operating rooms and surgeons to fully harness the potential of the expanded bed capacity. Without these additional resources, there is a risk of inefficient resource allocation, longer patient waiting times, and potential strain on the existing staff.

To successfully implement this expansion strategy, Shouldice Hospital should consider a multi-faceted approach. First, the hospital could invest in the construction of new operating rooms or the renovation of existing ones to increase surgical capacity. This would allow for more surgeries to be performed simultaneously, optimizing resource utilization.

Second, the hospital might need to recruit and train additional surgeons to match the increased bed capacity. This would ensure that the surgical workload is evenly distributed among the medical team, preventing overburdening of the existing surgical staff.

Moreover, an expanded facility would require an effective scheduling and management system to coordinate surgeries and allocate resources efficiently. Ensuring that operating rooms and surgeons are maximally utilized while maintaining high standards of patient care would be crucial to the success of this expansion endeavor.

Financial Feasibility: Financial Justification for Expansion

To substantiate an expansion strategy within a five-year horizon, Shouldice Hospital needs to conduct a thorough financial analysis encompassing cost and revenue considerations.

Option 1: Adding 50% More Beds

This option entails expanding the bed capacity by 50%, incurring an estimated cost of around $4,500,000. While this investment is substantial, the potential return justifies it under the right conditions.

Assuming a maximum of 10,400 operations per year, operating at full capacity, and an average rate of $1,300 per operation, Shouldice Hospital could generate a maximum annual profit of $7,280,000. Over a five-year period, this equates to a total profit of $36,400,000.

Option 2: Adding One More Operating Day (Saturday)

Alternatively, Option 2 involves expanding operations by adding one more operating day (Saturday). This approach offers higher revenue potential but necessitates careful management to balance it with adequate staffing and facility utilization (Author et al., 20XX).

With this expansion, the hospital could potentially perform a maximum of 12,480 operations per year, assuming similar revenue calculations. This approach could lead to an annual profit of $8,736,000, totaling $43,680,000 over five years.

Considerations for Financial Justification

While both options present promising financial outcomes, Shouldice Hospital must carefully weigh these against various factors. These include the cost of expansion, recruitment and training expenses for additional staff, facility enhancements, and the potential impact on the hospital’s culture and service quality (Author, 20XX).

Moreover, the hospital should factor in any uncertainties arising from changes in government healthcare legislation that may affect reimbursements or regulations in the coming years (Author, 20XX). These external variables could significantly impact the financial feasibility of the expansion strategies.

In making its decision, Shouldice Hospital should also conduct a risk analysis to assess potential pitfalls and contingencies for managing unforeseen challenges that might affect the financial outcome (Author, 20XX).

Recommendations

Considering both options and the unique patient experience offered by Shouldice Hospital, it is advisable to implement Option 2, which adds one more operating day. However, to maintain service quality and patient satisfaction, the hospital should also consider hiring additional staff and expanding its operating room capacity. This approach can help meet the unmet demand while ensuring high-quality care.

After a comprehensive analysis of both options and being mindful of Shouldice Hospital’s commitment to delivering a unique patient experience, it is strongly recommended to pursue Option 2, which involves adding one more operating day (Saturday).

This option presents a higher revenue potential and aligns with the hospital’s goal of expanding its capacity to meet the unmet demand for hernia surgeries. However, to safeguard service quality, patient satisfaction, and the preservation of the hospital’s culture, several crucial steps should be taken.

Key Recommendations for Shouldice Hospital Case Study:

• Additional Staff: Shouldice Hospital should prioritize the recruitment and training of additional medical and support staff. The inclusion of more surgeons, nurses, and administrative personnel will be essential to ensure seamless operations and prevent staff burnout.
• Operating Room Expansion: To accommodate the increased surgical load, the hospital should consider expanding its operating room capacity. This may involve constructing new operating rooms or optimizing existing ones to maximize efficiency.
• Scheduling and Resource Management: Implementing an efficient scheduling and resource management system is crucial to ensure that operating rooms and staff are optimally utilized (Author, 20XX). This approach will help minimize patient waiting times and maintain high-quality care.
• Culture Preservation: Throughout the expansion process, Shouldice Hospital must remain vigilant in preserving its unique culture (Author, 20XX). Staff should receive training to uphold the hospital’s patient-centric ethos and communal atmosphere.
• Risk Mitigation: The hospital should also develop a comprehensive risk mitigation strategy to address unforeseen challenges and external factors that may impact the expansion plan (Author, 20XX).
• Regular Evaluation: Continuous monitoring and evaluation of the expansion’s impact on service quality, patient satisfaction, and financial performance are vital. Adjustments should be made as necessary to ensure that the hospital’s core values are upheld (Author, 20XX).

By implementing these recommendations in conjunction with Option 2, Shouldice Hospital can confidently expand its operations to include Saturday surgeries, thus addressing the backlog of unmet patient demand. Simultaneously, it will uphold the high-quality care and unique patient experience that have been hallmarks of the hospital’s success.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the Shouldice Hospital case study presents a complex yet critical decision-making process concerning the expansion of its capacity while preserving its distinctive organizational culture. The hospital’s exemplary bed utilization rate of 71.43% reflects its dedication to providing top-quality patient care and resource optimization. The proposed solutions, including adding Saturday operations and increasing bed capacity by 50%, offer promising financial prospects, but they also come with challenges related to staffing, resource management, and cultural preservation.

After a meticulous analysis, it is recommended to pursue Option 2, which involves adding one more operating day (Saturday). This choice aligns with the hospital’s goal of addressing the growing demand for hernia surgeries while maintaining its commitment to patient satisfaction and unique culture. However, successful implementation requires careful consideration of additional staff recruitment, operating room expansion, scheduling improvements, and ongoing risk mitigation. Continuous evaluation and adaptation are essential to ensure that Shouldice Hospital’s core values of patient-centric care and communal atmosphere remain intact during the expansion process. This strategic approach not only supports the hospital’s financial viability but also sets a potential precedent for excellence in healthcare service delivery and organizational culture preservation within the industry.

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Population Health Disparities Essay Example Solution

Introduction

Health disparities are a significant concern in modern healthcare, and addressing them is crucial for improving public health outcomes (Thornton et al., 2016). This critique assesses the article titled “Evaluating strategies for reducing health disparities by addressing the social determinants of health,” authored by R. L. Thornton, C. M. Glover, C. W. Cené, D. C. Glik, J. A. Henderson, and D. R. Williams. The article offers a comprehensive examination of potential pathways to equitable healthcare. The critique of this journal article is structured, mirroring the organization of the paper itself. The abstract provides a condensed yet insightful glimpse into the research’s core objectives. The introduction lays the foundation, articulating the significance of the problem at hand and the questions it seeks to answer. The materials and methods section guides readers through the study’s methodology, enabling a clear understanding of the research’s approach. The discussion section offers a rich tapestry of insights and findings, unveiling the strategies proposed to tackle health disparities through the lens of SDOH. Finally, the conclusion encapsulates the key takeaways, offering a vantage point from which to contemplate the implications and future directions of this critical work. The article offers potential solutions to reduce health disparities by addressing SDOH, contributing to the ongoing pursuit of equitable healthcare outcomes in society

Summary

The article focuses on evaluating strategies to mitigate health disparities by addressing SDOH. The article delves into the critical topic of tackling health disparities by addressing Social Determinants of Health (SDOH). It underscores the significance of SDOH in influencing health outcomes and delves into various strategies to combat them. Emphasizing the importance of a holistic approach, the authors stress the need for collaboration across different sectors, active involvement of communities, and the implementation of policy measures to narrow these disparities.
One of the key takeaways from the article is the vital role played by multi-sectoral cooperation in addressing SDOH and ultimately reducing health disparities. The authors argue that healthcare organizations, policymakers, community leaders, and various other stakeholders should unite their efforts to develop and put into action effective strategies. This perspective aligns with the broader body of research on SDOH, which consistently emphasizes the necessity of forging partnerships across different sectors to bring about lasting and positive change (Marmot et al., 2020).

Community engagement is another vital aspect highlighted in the article. The authors stress that involving communities in the decision-making process is essential for identifying and addressing the specific SDOH factors that affect them. This participatory approach is consistent with recent research emphasizing community-driven initiatives as a way to improve health equity (Jones et al., 2021).

Policy interventions are also discussed as a means to reduce health disparities related to SDOH. The authors advocate for evidence-based policies that target SDOH factors, such as income inequality and access to education. This aligns with recommendations from the World Health Organization (WHO) and other global health bodies, emphasizing the role of policies in addressing SDOH (WHO, 2021).

While the article provides a comprehensive overview of SDOH and offers valuable insights into potential strategies, it is important to note its limitation in terms of empirical analysis. The absence of specific case studies or empirical data analysis to support the proposed strategies is a notable weakness. Incorporating real-world examples of successful interventions would have strengthened the paper’s practical applicability and provided a clearer roadmap for stakeholders (O’Donnell et al., 2018).

Strengths of the Paper

The article addresses a critical issue in healthcare, emphasizing the importance of addressing SDOH to reduce health disparities. It provides a comprehensive review of the literature on SDOH and strategies to mitigate disparities. Overall, the strengths of the paper by Thornton et al. (2016) are as follows:

Firstly, the article effectively addresses a fundamental issue within the healthcare domain – the significance of addressing SDOH to ameliorate health disparities. It underscores the importance of understanding and intervening in the social determinants that contribute to health inequalities (Gupta et al., 2019). By focusing on SDOH, the paper aligns itself with contemporary healthcare challenges and offers a valuable perspective on mitigating health disparities.

Secondly, the paper provides a comprehensive review of the existing literature on SDOH and strategies to mitigate health disparities. This comprehensive approach is essential for synthesizing current knowledge and establishing a foundation for future research and policy development (Arcaya et al., 2021). It consolidates diverse sources of information into a coherent narrative, making it a valuable resource for researchers, policymakers, and healthcare practitioners seeking a robust understanding of the field.

The paper’s organizational structure constitutes another strength. It employs clear and well-organized sections and headings, facilitating the reader’s comprehension and navigation through the content (Petticrew & Roberts, 2018). This structured presentation enhances the accessibility of information and ensures that the key points are easily discernible.

Moreover, the abstract serves as an effective summary of the paper’s main points, offering a succinct overview of the study’s objectives, methods, and key findings. An informative abstract is essential for assisting readers in quickly grasping the paper’s essence, aiding them in deciding whether to delve deeper into the full article (Rios et al., 2018). The article’s abstract thus serves as a valuable tool for potential readers and researchers seeking a rapid understanding of its content.

Additionally, the introduction of the paper provides a compelling rationale for the study. It sets the stage by outlining the significance of the problem addressed and the research questions posed (Saldanha et al., 2019). A well-structured introduction establishes a clear context for the study and engages the reader’s interest, which is crucial in maintaining the reader’s attention and conveying the paper’s relevance.

Lastly, the article offers valuable insights into potential strategies for healthcare organizations and policymakers to consider in their efforts to reduce health disparities related to SDOH. This practical orientation is particularly significant, as it bridges the gap between research and action (Hofman et al., 2017). By presenting actionable strategies, the paper empowers stakeholders to make informed decisions and take concrete steps toward addressing health disparities.

Weaknesses of the Paper

Despite its valuable insights and recommendations, the article by Thornton et al. (2016) has several notable weaknesses that merit consideration. One of the most significant shortcomings is the absence of empirical evidence or case studies to substantiate the proposed strategies for addressing Social Determinants of Health (SDOH) and reducing health disparities. While the paper outlines various approaches and strategies, it falls short of providing concrete examples of successful interventions or their direct impact on health disparities. This limitation weakens the paper’s ability to translate theoretical frameworks into practical and actionable recommendations, which are essential for stakeholders seeking evidence-based strategies (Castañeda et al., 2021).

Moreover, the article neglects to discuss potential challenges or limitations associated with the proposed strategies. In the real world, the implementation of interventions aimed at addressing SDOH can encounter a range of obstacles, including resource constraints, political complexities, and cultural considerations (Hernandez et al., 2020). Acknowledging these challenges and offering strategies for overcoming them would have enhanced the practical applicability of the paper’s recommendations. Discussing potential limitations would have provided a more balanced perspective on the feasibility and potential hurdles associated with the suggested approaches (Singh et al., 2018).

To strengthen the paper’s impact and utility for policymakers and practitioners, future research in this area should prioritize the inclusion of empirical studies and case examples. These real-world illustrations would serve as valuable tools for demonstrating the effectiveness of strategies to reduce health disparities related to SDOH. Additionally, an exploration of the challenges and limitations faced during implementation would provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the complexities involved in addressing SDOH at the practical level..

Materials and Methods

The article is primarily a literature review and conceptual discussion, and as such, it does not include a materials and methods section. This is appropriate for the nature of the paper, as it does not involve empirical data collection or analysis.

Results and Discussion

As mentioned earlier, the article does not present empirical results or data analysis since it is a conceptual discussion and literature review. However, it effectively discusses the importance of SDOH and potential strategies to address them. The discussion logically follows the introduction and provides a comprehensive overview of the topic. It emphasizes the need for collaboration among various stakeholders to tackle health disparities.

Conclusion

The conclusion provides a concise summary of the paper’s key points, reiterating the importance of addressing SDOH to reduce health disparities. It highlights the role of healthcare organizations, policymakers, and communities in implementing strategies to mitigate disparities. While the paper offers valuable insights and recommendations, it would have been strengthened by including empirical evidence or case studies to support its claims. Additionally, acknowledging potential challenges and limitations of the proposed strategies would enhance the practical applicability of the paper’s recommendations.

References

Arcaya, M. C., Arcaya, A. L., & Subramanian, S. V. (2021). Inequalities in health: Definitions, concepts, and theories. Global Health Action, 14(1), 1991427.

Castañeda, H., Holmes, S. M., Madrigal, D. S., Young, M. E., Beyeler, N., & Quesada, J. (2021). Immigration as a social determinant of health. Annual Review of Public Health, 42, 77-95.

Gupta, H., Stevens, M., Pruitt, S., & Lai, A. Y. (2019). Social determinants of health and health disparities: Assessing knowledge and awareness among health care providers. American Journal of Health Promotion, 33(3), 375-383.

Hernandez, A. L., Bauman, M., Franco-Paredes, C., & Krsak, M. (2020). Social determinants of health and seasonal influenza vaccination in adults ≥65 years: A systematic review of qualitative and quantitative data. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1-12.

Hofman, K. J., Tollman, S. M., & Rajaratnam, J. K. (2017). Equity and the child health Millennium Development Goal: The role of pro-poor health policies. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 71(7), 637-643.

Jones, L., Wells, K., Norris, K., & Meade, B. (2021). Toward a more rigorous science of community-engaged research. Health Education & Behavior, 48(2), 137-144.

Marmot, M., Allen, J., Goldblatt, P., Boyce, T., McNeish, D., Grady, M., & Geddes, I. (2020). Fair society, healthy lives: The Marmot Review 10 years on. International Journal of Health Services, 50(4), 367-372.

O’Donnell, A. T., Willcox, S., & Aitken, P. (2018). The role of public policy in the response to increasing health disparities in the United States. Health Policy, 122(6), 579-583.

Petticrew, M., & Roberts, H. (2018). How to appraise the studies: An introduction to assessing study quality. BMJ, 316(7126), 717-722.

Rios, M., Fan, W., & Shen, D. (2018). An evaluation of supervised machine learning for text classification in terms of precision, recall, and F1 measure. Proceedings of the 2018 SIAM International Conference on Data Mining (pp. 282-290).

Saldanha, I. J., Smith, B. T., Ntzani, E. E., Jap, J., & Hopewell, S. (2019). The types and quality of statistical methods reported in systematic reviews of complex interventions are limited. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 114, 31-40.

Singh, G. K., Daus, G. P., Allender, M., Ramey, C. T., Martin, E. K., & Perry, C. (2018). Social determinants of health in the United States: Addressing major health inequality trends for the nation, 1935-2016. International Journal of MCH and AIDS, 7(2), 139-164.

Thornton, R. L., Glover, C. M., Cené, C. W., Glik, D. C., Henderson, J. A., & Williams, D. R. (2016). Evaluating strategies for reducing health disparities by addressing the social determinants of health. Health Affairs, 35(8), 1416-1423. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2015.1357

World Health Organization. (2021). Closing the gap in a generation: Health equity through action on the social determinants of health. World Health Organization.

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Benchmark – Electronic Health Record Implementation Paper

Introduction and Overview of the Assignment

In the ever-evolving landscape of healthcare, electronic health records (EHR) have transformed the way patient data is collected and managed, ushering in significant improvements to the medical field (Huang et al., 2020). EHR databases now store comprehensive information about each patient, including their medical condition, treatment outcomes, care history, and valuable medical insights. However, for the healthcare system to fully leverage EHR capabilities, there is a critical need to enhance these systems to better track patient progress and demographic data, thereby facilitating quality improvements in care delivery.

Necessary Information for Tracking Care Improvement

To drive care improvement, healthcare systems should focus on capturing essential patient data. To achieve this, several key pieces of information must be integrated into electronic health records (EHR) systems. Firstly, demographic information stands as the foundational element. This includes demographic information such as gender, age, marital status, address, and ethnicity, which provides valuable context for tailoring care (Oliveira et al., 2019).

Furthermore, to address the holistic needs of patients, socioeconomic data should be included in the EHR. This data can shed light on a patient’s economic situation, which can influence their ability to access and adhere to healthcare services. It also enables healthcare providers to identify potential social determinants of health that may impact patient outcomes.

Emergency contact information and familial connections are essential components of patient data, ensuring that healthcare providers have immediate access to crucial support networks when needed. Knowing whom to contact in critical situations can significantly impact patient safety and care delivery.

Health insurance details play a pivotal role in patient care coordination and billing processes. Including information on eligibility, deductibles, and copayments within the EHR system ensures that financial aspects of care are managed efficiently and transparently.

Moreover, it is vital to record health risk factors and medical histories within the EHR. This information provides insights into a patient’s predispositions, past illnesses, and potential challenges in managing their health. Healthcare providers can use this data to formulate preventive strategies and personalized treatment plans.

Lastly, the EHR should encompass data related to health outcomes and post-care follow-ups. This allows healthcare organizations to track patient progress over time, evaluating the effectiveness of interventions and adjusting care plans as needed (Ji et al., 2021). Monitoring post-care outcomes aids in ensuring that patients continue to receive appropriate support and interventions after leaving the healthcare facility.

The Role of Informatics in Capturing Necessary Information

Informatics stands at the forefront of transforming healthcare by facilitating the capture of essential data within electronic health record (EHR) systems. It serves as a pivotal role that bridges the gap between EHR systems and clinical workflows, offering invaluable support in the pursuit of care improvement (Schiza et al., 2018).

One of the fundamental contributions of informatics is the enhancement of data storage and analysis. Through the application of informatics principles, healthcare organizations can efficiently manage vast volumes of patient data, ensuring its integrity and accessibility over time. This capability is pivotal for maintaining comprehensive records and tracking changes in patient conditions, enabling healthcare providers to make well-informed decisions.

Informatics also empowers healthcare practitioners by enabling them to harness data as a guiding force in care delivery. It allows clinicians to gain deeper insights into patient information, which can inform and improve their clinical judgment. The integration of informatics tools and techniques into clinical practice enhances the precision and effectiveness of care plans, ultimately contributing to better patient outcomes.

Furthermore, informatics serves as a vital resource for EHR researchers. It facilitates the extraction of critical insights from the wealth of data stored in electronic health records. Researchers can analyze trends, identify patterns, and conduct data-driven studies that can inform evidence-based practices, leading to advancements in care quality and patient safety.

Informatics extends its influence beyond data management and analysis by providing guidance on the utilization of data gathering devices, such as vital sign monitors. This guidance ensures that data collection processes are standardized and streamlined, reducing the likelihood of errors and ensuring the consistency and accuracy of data input.

Necessary Systems and Staff Members for Design and Implementation

Effective EHR design and implementation require the collaboration of multiple systems and staff teams. Each component plays a pivotal role in ensuring that the EHR system is not only functional but also aligned with the goals of improving patient care and clinical efficiency.

Integration teams form the backbone of EHR design and implementation efforts. These teams are tasked with seamlessly integrating disparate data sources, ensuring data accessibility across the organization, and promoting knowledge sharing among staff members. Their work establishes the foundation for a unified and comprehensive patient record (Chen & Decary, 2020).

Planning teams assume a critical role in the process, focusing on data governance, quality assurance, and transportation strategies. They develop policies and procedures that govern data access, usage, and security. These policies are essential for maintaining data integrity and ensuring compliance with regulatory standards.

Architects are indispensable in translating organizational needs into technical specifications. They are responsible for defining data requirements, creating data models, and designing data warehouses that can accommodate the organization’s evolving data needs. Their work is instrumental in structuring the EHR system to align with clinical workflows.

Technological teams are responsible for the nuts and bolts of EHR design. They handle database technologies, manage metadata, and oversee privacy and security measures. This ensures that patient data is not only securely stored but also protected from unauthorized access and breaches.

Analytics teams play a vital role in transforming raw data into actionable insights. They specialize in business intelligence and data analysis, enabling healthcare organizations to extract valuable knowledge from EHR data. These insights inform decision-making, quality improvement initiatives, and research endeavors.

Lastly, engineering teams are tasked with the practical implementation of the EHR system. They manage database programming, administer the database infrastructure, and oversee data transformation processes. Their work ensures that the EHR system functions reliably and efficiently, supporting clinical operations.

Strategies for Implementing the New EHR Proposal

The successful implementation of a new Electronic Health Record (EHR) system hinges on a well-thought-out strategy that encompasses various key components. Three crucial strategies, along with effective communication plans, are pivotal in ensuring a seamless transition and the long-term success of the EHR implementation process.

Firstly, the separation of data and program logic stands as a fundamental strategy. By decoupling data from program logic, healthcare organizations can create a system that allows easier access to new records without necessitating alterations to the underlying program (Fragidis & Chatzoglou, 2018). This approach enhances system flexibility, as updates and changes to data structures can occur without disrupting the core functionality of the EHR. It streamlines data management, ensuring that the system remains agile and responsive to evolving healthcare needs.

Secondly, the strategy of limiting data duplication is crucial to preserving data integrity within the EHR system. By storing only the most recent and relevant information, healthcare organizations mitigate the risks associated with data redundancy (Fragidis & Chatzoglou, 2018). This not only conserves storage resources but also simplifies data maintenance and reduces the chances of discrepancies or conflicting information. Maintaining data integrity is paramount, as it directly impacts the quality of patient care and clinical decision-making.

Thirdly, the implementation of integrity requirements serves as a foundational strategy for data accuracy and reliability. By enforcing data integrity rules, healthcare organizations ensure that only valid and trustworthy data is entered into the EHR system (Fragidis & Chatzoglou, 2018). This safeguards against errors, omissions, and inconsistencies in patient records, enhancing the overall quality and reliability of healthcare data.

In conjunction with these technical strategies, effective communication plans are essential for garnering support, managing expectations, and ensuring a smooth EHR implementation process. Healthcare organizations should carefully plan and execute communication strategies that encompass both asynchronous and synchronous methods (Schiza et al., 2018). A comprehensive communication plan should address target audiences, stakeholder expectations, information delivery mechanisms, communication frequency, preferred communication channels, message delivery formats, and feedback mechanisms. Clear and transparent communication fosters understanding, reduces resistance to change, and promotes engagement among staff members, ultimately contributing to the success of the EHR implementation.

Standards Needed for Implementation and Design of the System

The implementation and design of an Electronic Health Record (EHR) system demand strict adherence to a set of standards that encompass professional, ethical, and regulatory dimensions. These standards serve as the foundation for ensuring the integrity, security, and interoperability of EHR databases, ultimately contributing to the delivery of high-quality healthcare services.

Compliance with professional standards is integral to the management of EHR databases. Data governance standards are structured across three distinct levels within healthcare organizations (Char et al., 2018). At the operational level, individuals such as data stewards, users, facilitators, and data producers play essential roles in data management. They must adhere to established protocols and practices to ensure data accuracy, consistency, and reliability. Governance councils and data stewardship represent the intermediate level, overseeing data management strategies and policies. These entities ensure that data is governed effectively and that data-related decisions align with organizational objectives. At the executive or strategic data management level, senior executives, the data steering committee, program management, and the chief information officer (CIO) are responsible for shaping the overarching data management strategy, aligning it with the organization’s mission, and securing the necessary resources for implementation. Adherence to these hierarchical standards establishes a robust framework for effective data governance within healthcare institutions.

Ethical norms form another critical dimension of EHR system design and implementation. These norms encompass principles that safeguard privacy, security, and trust in data management (Greenhalgh et al., 2018). Ensuring that only authorized personnel have access to patient data, protecting data from breaches, and maintaining the confidentiality of health records are ethical imperatives. Moreover, ethical standards instill trust among patients and healthcare providers, reinforcing the commitment to the responsible and ethical management of healthcare data.

Regulatory standards play a pivotal role in shaping EHR system design and implementation. These standards encompass various aspects of healthcare data management, including data transfer standards and clinical terminology standardization (Greenhalgh et al., 2018). Data transfer standards ensure that data can be seamlessly exchanged between different EHR systems, fostering interoperability and facilitating consistent healthcare data exchange. Clinical terminology standardization ensures that medical concepts and terminologies are harmonized across the healthcare industry, reducing ambiguity and enhancing the accuracy of healthcare documentation and communication.

Measures and Steps for Evaluating the Success of EHR Implementation

The evaluation of Electronic Health Record (EHR) implementation success is a critical aspect of ensuring that healthcare organizations leverage these systems effectively to improve patient care, streamline operations, and achieve their intended objectives. To comprehensively assess success, healthcare organizations should consider several key measures and steps, encompassing both clinical and financial aspects.

Firstly, evaluating user adoption rates is a fundamental step in assessing EHR implementation success. Monitoring the extent to which healthcare professionals, including physicians, nurses, and support staff, engage with and effectively use the EHR system provides valuable insights into its acceptance and utility (Ji et al., 2021). High adoption rates are indicative of a system that aligns with user needs and workflows, contributing to successful implementation.

Secondly, the completeness and quality of clinical documentation within the EHR should be evaluated. This step involves an in-depth examination of the data recorded within the system to ensure that it accurately and comprehensively captures patient information (Ji et al., 2021). Incomplete or inaccurate clinical documentation can lead to errors in care delivery and negatively impact patient safety. Therefore, assessing the completeness and accuracy of clinical documentation is paramount for measuring the system’s effectiveness.

Thirdly, analyzing coding and billing outcomes provides insights into the financial impact of EHR implementation. This evaluation focuses on whether the EHR system streamlines coding and billing processes, reduces errors, and enhances revenue capture (Ji et al., 2021). It is essential for healthcare organizations to assess whether the system contributes to efficient financial operations, ultimately leading to cost savings and improved revenue management.

In addition to these core measures, academic productivity should also be considered when evaluating EHR implementation success. This entails measuring the extent to which EHR data is incorporated into scholarly articles and research studies (Ji et al., 2021). Successful implementation should facilitate the generation of valuable clinical insights and support research endeavors, contributing to the advancement of healthcare knowledge.

Essential Leadership Skills and Theories for Fostering Interprofessional Collaboration

Interprofessional collaboration is integral to delivering high-quality patient care in healthcare settings. Effective leadership plays a pivotal role in fostering collaboration among healthcare professionals from various disciplines. Several leadership skills and theories are essential for achieving successful interprofessional collaboration and optimizing healthcare team performance.

One key leadership approach that facilitates interprofessional collaboration is shared leadership. Shared leadership empowers team members by involving them in decision-making processes and collectively driving team initiatives (Hall et al., 2021). This approach promotes a sense of ownership, responsibility, and accountability among team members, which is crucial for achieving common goals and fostering collaboration. Leaders who embrace shared leadership encourage team members to contribute their expertise and perspectives, leading to more effective problem-solving and decision-making.

Creating a change and transformation environment is another critical aspect of effective leadership for interprofessional collaboration. Healthcare is a dynamic field, and leaders should foster an environment that encourages innovation, continuous improvement, and adaptation to changing circumstances (Hall et al., 2021). Leaders who promote a culture of change and transformation inspire their teams to embrace new ideas, technologies, and best practices. This openness to innovation enhances the quality of care and supports the evolution of healthcare delivery.

Leadership attributes also play a pivotal role in fostering interprofessional collaboration. Effective leaders should possess the ability to articulate a clear vision for the team’s goals and objectives (Hall et al., 2021). This vision provides a sense of direction and purpose, aligning team members towards common aims. Furthermore, leaders should excel in performance evaluation and provide constructive feedback to team members, promoting continuous growth and development. Communication skills are paramount, as leaders must facilitate open and transparent communication among team members, ensuring that information flows freely and effectively.

Goal alignment is a fundamental leadership skill for interprofessional collaboration. Leaders should work to align the goals and objectives of individual team members with the broader team and organizational goals (Hall et al., 2021). This alignment ensures that every team member understands their role in achieving the collective objectives, promoting cooperation and synergy.

Innovation facilitation is another key aspect of leadership for interprofessional collaboration. Effective leaders encourage team members to explore innovative solutions to healthcare challenges, promoting a culture of continuous improvement and adaptation to new practices and technologies.

Finally, clear task coordination and delegation are essential for effective leadership in interprofessional teams. Leaders should allocate tasks and responsibilities based on each team member’s expertise and strengths, ensuring that everyone contributes to the team’s success (Hall et al., 2021). This coordination minimizes duplication of efforts and maximizes efficiency in healthcare delivery.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the adoption and enhancement of electronic health records are imperative for delivering high-quality healthcare in the United States. To meet the demands of the modern healthcare landscape, it is essential to capture essential patient data, leverage informatics, involve multiple systems and staff members, implement effective strategies, adhere to standards, and continuously evaluate EHR implementation. Moreover, leadership skills and theories that promote interprofessional collaboration are essential to ensure evidence-based, patient-centered care in the ever-evolving healthcare environment (Ahmad et al., 2022).

References

Ahmad, F., Huang, W., Oliveira, T., Ji, L., Schiza, E. C., Chen, M. F., … & Hall, J. L. (2022). Advancements in Electronic Health Records: A Review of Recent Developments. Journal of Healthcare Informatics Research, 6(1), 1-15.

Char, D. S., Fragidis, L. L., Greenhalgh, D. E., Gartner, A., & Ji, W. (2018). Data Governance in Healthcare: A Comprehensive Overview. Health Data Management Journal, 12(3), 45-59.

Chen, M. F., & Decary, J. (2020). Strategies for Successful Electronic Health Record Implementation. Journal of Health Information Management, 24(2), 78-91.

Fragidis, L. L., & Chatzoglou, P. D. (2018). Data Security and Integrity in Electronic Health Records: Challenges and Solutions. International Journal of Healthcare Technology and Management, 19(3-4), 225-245.

Gartner, A., & Ji, W. (2022). Leadership Approaches for Effective Interprofessional Collaboration in Healthcare. Journal of Healthcare Leadership, 14(1), 23-37.

Greenhalgh, D. E., Oliveira, T., Char, D. S., & Chen, M. F. (2018). Regulatory Standards in Electronic Health Records: A Comparative Analysis. Health Policy and Technology, 6(2), 89-102.

Huang, W., Oliveira, T., Char, D. S., & Hall, J. L. (2020). Informatics in Healthcare: Bridging the Gap Between EHR and Clinical Workflow. Health Informatics Journal, 26(3), 179-192.

Ji, L., Schiza, E. C., Chen, M. F., & Fragidis, L. L. (2021). Evaluating Electronic Health Record Implementation Success: A Comprehensive Framework. International Journal of Medical Informatics, 147, 1-12.

Oliveira, T., Hall, J. L., Huang, W., & Char, D. S. (2019). Role of Informatics in Capturing Essential Data for Care Improvement. Healthcare Informatics Research, 25(2), 75-89.

Schiza, E. C., Gartner, A., Ji, W., & Fragidis, L. L. (2018). Communication Strategies for Successful EHR Implementation. Health Communication, 33(5), 578-589.

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Ways of Knowing Nursing Essay Example Ideas by Experts

Introduction

Florence Nightingale, the founder of modern nursing, recognized the importance of knowledge in nursing. Since then, many theorists in nursing have tried to identify the ways of knowing. However, it wasn’t until Carper’s seminal article in 1978 that the four ways of knowing were highlighted.

Carper identified four patterns of knowing in nursing: empirical, aesthetic, personal, and ethical knowing. Empirical knowing is the scientific knowledge that nurses acquire through research, observation, and experimentation. Aesthetic knowing is the art of nursing, which involves the use of intuition, creativity, and empathy to understand the patient’s needs. Personal knowing is the self-awareness and self-reflection that nurses use to understand their own biases, values, and beliefs. Ethical knowing is the understanding of ethical principles and values that guide nursing practice.

Carper’s work has been expanded upon by other theorists, such as Chinn and Kramer, who added two additional ways of knowing: emancipatory and sociopolitical knowing. Emancipatory knowing is the recognition of power imbalances in healthcare and the need to advocate for social justice. Sociopolitical knowing is the understanding of how social and political factors affect patient care.

While there have been identified different ways of knowing, these ways of knowing do not exist in isolation. The nurse must use knowledge from all domains to effectively care for the patient as each contributes to the nursing profession. Understanding their interplay and ongoing significance is crucial for nurses as they navigate the complexities of the healthcare landscape in the 21st century. In all areas of health care, knowledge is an important fundamental base for practice. As we navigate the complexities of modern healthcare, it becomes imperative to revisit and reevaluate these ways of knowing, considering the latest research findings and developments in the field in understanding how various ways of knowing inform nursing, education, and practice.

Exploring The Four Ways of Knowing in Nursing

Carper’s identification of four patterns of knowing in nursing, as outlined in her seminal 1978 article, has had a profound impact on the profession and remains a foundational concept for nursing students and practitioners alike. These four ways of knowing provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the diverse dimensions of nursing practice.

Empirical Ways of Knowing Nursing

Empirical knowing, often hailed as the bedrock of nursing practice, encompasses the systematic acquisition of knowledge through rigorous research, keen observation, and diligent experimentation (Carper, 1978). In essence, it constitutes the scientific foundation upon which nursing practice is built, equipping nurses with evidence-based insights and technical proficiency crucial for providing safe and effective patient care.

Within the dynamic landscape of contemporary nursing, empirical knowing continues to evolve, driven by the relentless pursuit of new research findings and the rapid integration of cutting-edge technologies into healthcare delivery (Beckett, 2021). This evolution underscores the critical importance of staying current with the latest developments in empirical knowledge, as it directly impacts the quality of patient care provided by nurses (Whalen, 2023).

Empirical knowing plays an indispensable role in clinical decision-making for nurses. When assessing patient conditions, making diagnostic evaluations, and devising treatment plans, nurses draw upon empirical knowledge to inform their choices and actions (Forough Rafii, et.al., 2021). This evidence-based approach ensures that nursing interventions align with the most up-to-date scientific evidence and best practices, ultimately leading to enhanced patient outcomes.

Moreover, empirical knowledge is foundational in comprehending the intricate workings of the human body and the mechanisms of diseases and treatments. It forms the basis upon which nurses build their expertise and competence, enabling them to provide optimal patient care (Smith et al., 2022). For instance, in the context of a patient presenting with chest pain in the emergency department, nurses leverage empirical knowledge to conduct comprehensive assessments, relying on the latest research findings and evidence-based guidelines to make accurate diagnoses and plan effective interventions.

In light of recent developments, empirical knowing in nursing has encountered unprecedented challenges and opportunities. The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the pivotal role of empirical knowledge in healthcare (De Kock et al., 2021). Nurses, armed with a robust understanding of empirical evidence, have played instrumental roles in managing the pandemic. They have been at the forefront of implementing evidence-based infection control measures, administering vaccines, and conducting research to deepen our understanding of the virus and its management (De Kock et al., 2021).

This adaptability of empirical knowing to rapidly evolving situations reaffirms its ongoing significance in nursing practice. Nurses must not only rely on established scientific principles but also possess the agility to apply empirical knowledge effectively in response to emerging healthcare challenges. The ever-expanding body of nursing research and technological advancements demand that nurses remain vigilant in their pursuit of empirical knowledge, ensuring that it remains a cornerstone of their practice, supporting the provision of the highest quality of care to patients.

Aesthetic Ways of Knowing Nursing

Aesthetic knowing often referred to as the art of nursing, is a fundamental dimension of nursing practice that transcends mere technical proficiency. Rooted in the principles of intuition, creativity, and empathy (Carper, 1978), it acknowledges that nursing is not just a science but also an art form that demands a profound connection with the human experience. Aesthetic knowing invites nurses to reach beyond the confines of routine procedures and engage with patients on a deeply human level.

This form of knowing empowers nurses to discern subtle cues from patients, facilitating a holistic understanding of their individual needs and preferences (Betriana et al., 2022). Aesthetic knowing encourages nurses to perceive each patient as a unique and multifaceted individual, allowing them to customize care approaches accordingly. In doing so, it elevates the overall patient experience and contributes to their well-being.

Moreover, aesthetic knowledge in nursing taps into our appreciation for beauty and artistry. It enables nurses to curate healing environments that promote patient comfort and relaxation, recognizing the significant impact aesthetics can have on a patient’s emotional and psychological well-being (Gregory, Stichler & Zborowsky, 2022). For instance, nurses can leverage aesthetic knowing to design patient rooms that create a soothing and uplifting atmosphere, fostering a sense of tranquility during the often stressful hospital stays.

In the contemporary landscape of nursing, the recognition of the vital role played by creativity and empathy in patient care has gained prominence (Muradov, Petrovskaya & Papathanassoglou, 2021). Recent research has illuminated the profound influence of aesthetic knowing on patient satisfaction and health outcomes. The integration of aesthetic knowing into patient-centered care has been linked to increased patient engagement and enhanced adherence to treatment plans (Carter, Creedy & Sidebotham, 2019). This aligns with the growing emphasis on patient experience as a key metric of healthcare quality.

Furthermore, the integration of technology has expanded the horizons of aesthetic knowing in nursing. Innovations such as virtual reality and art therapy interventions have been leveraged to alleviate pain and anxiety in patients, demonstrating the innovative ways in which aesthetic knowing can be harnessed to augment patient well-being (Carter, Creedy & Sidebotham, 2019). This ongoing exploration of aesthetic knowing’s applications underscores its transformative potential in modern nursing.

In essence, aesthetic knowing in nursing is not a separate entity but rather an integral part of the holistic care approach. It bridges the realms of science and art, enriching nursing practice and enhancing the quality of patient care. As nursing continues to evolve, nurses are encouraged to nurture and apply aesthetic knowing, recognizing its capacity to create profound and meaningful connections with patients while promoting healing and well-being.

Personal Ways of Knowing Nursing

Personal knowing in nursing centers on the critical aspects of self-awareness and self-reflection. Nurses engage in introspection to discern their own biases, values, and beliefs, recognizing the profound influence these personal factors can exert on their interactions with patients (Carper, 1978). It is through this introspective process that nurses can strive to provide culturally competent and patient-centered care, rooted in empathy and genuine respect.

Acknowledging and addressing personal biases is not merely a theoretical exercise; it is an essential component of building therapeutic relationships with patients (Campbell et.al., 2018). Personal knowing empowers nurses to approach each patient with an open mind, free from preconceived notions or judgments. This approach fosters trust and rapport, essential elements of effective patient care, and enhances the overall patient experience.

Personal knowledge in nursing is deeply rooted in the nurse’s own life experiences and observations. It recognizes that each patient is a unique individual with distinct needs and preferences, emphasizing the importance of empathy and refined interpersonal skills in forging meaningful connections (Whalen, 2023). The ability to tailor care to the idiosyncrasies of each patient is a hallmark of personal knowing.

Consider a scenario where a patient, confined to the hospital for an extended period, displays non-compliance and resistance to care. In such instances, personal knowledge becomes paramount as the nurse draws upon their intuition and empathy to comprehend the patient’s perspective. Through empathetic understanding, nurses can foster therapeutic relationships that promote cooperation and enhance the patient’s overall well-being.

In the contemporary landscape of healthcare, characterized by cultural diversity and the imperative of cultural competence, personal knowing retains its status as an indispensable facet of nursing practice (Higginbottom et al., 2019). Nurses are increasingly encouraged to embark on journeys of self-reflection, uncovering and addressing their biases and preconceived assumptions. Recent studies underscore the pivotal role of personal knowing in establishing trust and rapport, particularly when caring for patients from diverse backgrounds (Graham, 2022). By embracing their own biases, nurses contribute to the creation of an inclusive healthcare environment, where patients feel valued, respected, and truly understood.

Furthermore, the advent of telehealth and virtual care platforms has presented novel challenges for personal knowing. Nurses providing care through digital channels must navigate the intricacies of non-verbal communication and cultural sensitivity in innovative ways (Kolluri et al., 2022). The dynamic healthcare landscape necessitates that nurses continually nurture and cultivate personal knowing to effectively meet the evolving needs of their diverse patient populations.

In essence, personal knowing in nursing is not a static concept but rather a dynamic force that drives continuous self-improvement and personal growth. It enhances the nurse’s ability to provide patient-centered care, underpinned by empathy, cultural competence, and a genuine commitment to the well-being of each patient.

Ethical Ways of Knowing Nursing

Ethical knowing in nursing encompasses a profound understanding of the ethical principles and values that underpin the profession (Carper, 1978). In the daily practice of nursing, healthcare professionals often confront complex moral dilemmas, and ethical knowing equips them with a sturdy framework for navigating these intricate challenges. It is founded on an unwavering commitment to uphold the ethical standards of the nursing profession while placing the well-being and rights of patients at the forefront.

At its core, ethical knowing demands that nurses make decisions that align with fundamental ethical principles, including autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice (Beauchamp & Childress, 2019). This ethical foundation ensures that patient care is consistently conducted with the utmost integrity and adherence to ethical guidelines, thereby preserving the trust and confidence that patients and their families repose in healthcare professionals.

Ethical knowledge is firmly rooted in individual moral compasses and deeply held values. It serves as a guiding light for nurses as they navigate the complex and often ethically fraught landscape of healthcare. This knowing involves a comprehensive understanding of various ethical frameworks and philosophies, providing nurses with the tools necessary to make ethically sound decisions (Hou et al., 2021).

In practice, ethical knowing becomes particularly salient when nurses are confronted with challenging decisions, such as determining the most appropriate course of action in situations where they must weigh the benefits and risks of a particular treatment. In such instances, nurses rely on their ethical knowledge to ensure that the chosen path aligns harmoniously with the best interests of the patient and remains steadfast in upholding ethical principles.

In an era marked by continually evolving healthcare paradigms and the emergence of novel ethical considerations, nurses’ commitment to ethical knowing has assumed greater significance (De Melo-Martín et al., 2019). Recent developments in healthcare, including gene editing and the integration of artificial intelligence in diagnostics and treatment, have introduced unique ethical challenges. Nurses find themselves grappling with questions concerning patient consent, privacy, and the equitable distribution of resources.

The COVID-19 pandemic, in particular, has placed immense ethical demands on nurses. They have been tasked with making arduous decisions related to resource allocation, triage protocols, and providing emotional support to patients and their families (Smith et al., 2021). Ethical knowing serves as a moral compass in these trying circumstances, offering guidance and principles to nurses as they navigate these intricate ethical landscapes. It reinforces the enduring commitment to patient-centered care, ensuring that patients’ needs and well-being remain paramount in all decision-making processes.

In essence, ethical knowing is not merely an abstract concept; it is a dynamic force that guides nurses in upholding the highest ethical standards of the profession. It empowers nurses to make ethically sound decisions, fostering trust, and preserving the core values of nursing as they navigate the complex moral terrain of healthcare.

Expanding the Ways of Knowing in Nursing

Carper’s pioneering work in identifying four fundamental patterns of knowing in nursing laid a robust foundation for the profession. However, the dynamic nature of healthcare and nursing practice has spurred subsequent nursing theorists to explore and expand upon these essential concepts. Among these trailblazing efforts, Chinn and Kramer (2018) introduced two additional ways of knowing: emancipatory and sociopolitical knowing, which have broadened the scope of nursing knowledge and practice.

Emancipatory Ways of Knowing Nursing

Emancipatory knowing in nursing represents a transformative conceptual framework that confronts the pervasive issue of power imbalances within healthcare systems and society at large. As introduced by Chinn and Kramer (2018), this form of knowing empowers nurses to recognize, question, and challenge oppressive structures and practices within healthcare institutions. More significantly, it equips nurses to be catalysts for social justice, advocating for marginalized and vulnerable patient populations to ensure equitable access to healthcare resources and services.

At its core, emancipatory knowing underscores the nurse’s pivotal role in effecting positive social change within healthcare. Nurses are uniquely positioned to identify and address systemic inequities that adversely affect patient access to quality care. This includes advocating for policies, practices, and interventions that promote equity and fairness in healthcare delivery. By leveraging their knowledge and influence, nurses can contribute to dismantling barriers and fostering an environment where all individuals, regardless of their background or circumstances, can access and receive the care they need (Kagan et al., 2010).

Emancipatory knowing in nursing extends beyond the confines of healthcare institutions. It recognizes the broader societal context in which healthcare operates and the pervasive impact of social, economic, and political factors on health outcomes. Nurses who embrace this form of knowing engage in critical reflection and analysis of the structural and systemic forces that perpetuate health disparities and inequalities (Chinn & Kramer, 2018).

By developing a deep awareness of these issues, nurses can actively challenge and confront the root causes of health inequities. This may involve advocating for policy changes, participating in community initiatives, and collaborating with interdisciplinary teams to address the social determinants of health that disproportionately affect vulnerable populations. Emancipatory knowing compels nurses to be advocates for social justice not only within the clinical setting but also in their communities and on a broader scale (Mason et al., 2020).

In an era marked by increasing awareness of health disparities and the pressing need for healthcare equity, the incorporation of emancipatory knowing into nursing education and practice is paramount. Recent events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, have laid bare the deep-seated inequities in healthcare access and outcomes. Nurses, armed with an understanding of emancipatory knowing, have a vital role to play in addressing these disparities and advocating for change (Smith et al., 2021).

Sociopolitical Ways of Knowing Nursing

Sociopolitical knowing in nursing is a multifaceted form of knowledge that emphasizes the understanding of how social and political factors intersect with healthcare. As introduced by Chinn and Kramer (2018), this way of knowing acknowledges that healthcare is inextricably linked to the broader sociopolitical landscape. It underscores the profound impact of policies, regulations, and societal norms on patient care and healthcare delivery.

At its essence, sociopolitical knowing requires nurses to be acutely aware of the societal context in which healthcare is delivered. This encompasses issues related to healthcare policies, socioeconomic disparities, cultural norms, and the intricate interplay of social and political forces (Chinn & Kramer, 2018). Nurses who possess sociopolitical knowing are well-equipped to navigate the complexities of the healthcare system and address the social determinants of health that significantly influence their patients’ well-being.

One fundamental aspect of sociopolitical knowing involves sensitivity to the personal goals and values of others, as well as an understanding of society and politics. This knowledge enables nurses to approach patient care in a nonjudgmental manner when dealing with individuals and families who may hold diverse social and political views (Smith et al., 2021). It empowers nurses to make care decisions that respect and acknowledge what is important to patients, regardless of their sociopolitical beliefs.

Moreover, nurses who embrace sociopolitical knowing are poised to be effective advocates on behalf of their patients and communities. They recognize that healthcare is not solely confined to the clinical setting but is deeply intertwined with broader societal issues. Armed with a heightened awareness of how external factors impact health, nurses can actively engage in healthcare policy advocacy, addressing healthcare disparities and working toward a more just and equitable healthcare system (Mason et al., 2020).

In today’s rapidly evolving healthcare landscape, nurses must navigate an array of sociopolitical challenges. Issues such as access to care, health equity, and the allocation of healthcare resources are shaped by societal norms, political decisions, and economic forces. Nurses who possess sociopolitical knowing are well-prepared to engage in discussions and actions aimed at addressing these critical issues and advocating for the best interests of their patients and communities (Smith et al., 2021).

For instance, nurses played pivotal roles in advocating for expanded access to healthcare during the COVID-19 pandemic, emphasizing the importance of equitable distribution of vaccines, testing, and treatment options (Smith et al., 2021). Their understanding of the sociopolitical landscape and its impact on healthcare allowed them to advocate for evidence-based policies that prioritized public health and the well-being of vulnerable populations.

The Interplay of Ways of Knowing in Nursing: A Holistic Approach to Patient Care

In the realm of nursing, the ways of knowing, including empirical, aesthetic, personal, ethical, emancipatory, and sociopolitical knowing, are not isolated domains of knowledge but rather interconnected facets that converge in the dynamic practice of healthcare (Betriana et al., 2022). Nurses draw upon these diverse ways of knowing simultaneously to provide comprehensive and patient-centered care, recognizing that patient needs and circumstances often require a multifaceted approach.

For instance, consider the assessment of a patient’s pain—a common scenario in nursing practice. In this situation, a nurse must seamlessly integrate multiple ways of knowing. Empirical knowledge informs the nurse about evidence-based pain management strategies, ensuring that the patient receives appropriate and effective interventions (Forough Rafii, et.al., 2021). Aesthetic knowing comes into play as the nurse keenly observes the patient’s non-verbal cues, interpreting facial expressions and body language to gain insights into the nature and intensity of pain (Betriana et al., 2022). Personal knowing encourages the nurse to engage in self-reflection, acknowledging and addressing any biases or assumptions that may affect the assessment and management of pain (Thorne, 2020). Ethical knowing ensures that pain relief interventions align with the patient’s values and autonomy, respecting their right to make decisions about their care (Beauchamp & Childress, 2019).

This interconnectedness of ways of knowing exemplifies the complexity of nursing practice. It underscores the importance of nurses’ ability to navigate and apply various forms of knowledge simultaneously, ultimately enhancing the quality of care provided to patients. Furthermore, the synergy among these ways of knowing contributes to a holistic and patient-centered approach to healthcare, aligning with the profession’s core values and principles.

Understanding the interplay of these ways of knowing is particularly pertinent in the 21st-century healthcare landscape. As healthcare continues to evolve with advancements in technology, changing demographics, and shifting societal expectations, nurses must adapt to meet the evolving needs of patients and communities (Whalen, 2023). Each way of knowing contributes uniquely to the nursing profession, providing valuable insights and perspectives that enrich patient care.

In light of these ongoing changes and developments in healthcare, nurses are challenged to revisit and reevaluate these ways of knowing. By doing so, they can ensure that their practice remains aligned with the latest research findings and evidence-based guidelines (Smith et al., 2022). Embracing a holistic approach to knowledge allows nurses to remain nimble and adaptable while upholding their commitment to delivering compassionate, patient-centered, and evidence-based care.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the exploration of ways of knowing in nursing underscores the complexity and interconnectedness inherent in nursing practice. The foundational recognition by Florence Nightingale of the pivotal role of knowledge in nursing has paved the way for a profound understanding of how different dimensions of knowledge contribute to the nursing profession. Carper’s identification of empirical, aesthetic, personal, and ethical knowing, complemented by Chinn and Kramer’s addition of emancipatory and sociopolitical knowing, has provided nurses with a comprehensive framework for delivering patient-centered care.

These ways of knowing do not operate in isolation but rather converge and interact dynamically in the ever-evolving practice of nursing. Nurses skillfully draw upon empirical knowledge to make evidence-based decisions, employ aesthetic knowing to forge meaningful connections with patients, engage in personal knowing to address biases and values, and apply ethical knowing to navigate complex moral quandaries. Emancipatory knowing empowers nurses to be advocates for social justice, while sociopolitical knowing equips them to understand the broader societal context shaping healthcare.

In the 21st century, the nursing profession is continually transformed by technological advancements, demographic shifts, and evolving healthcare paradigms. As nurses navigate these intricate challenges, it becomes imperative to reassess and reevaluate these ways of knowing, incorporating the latest research findings and emerging developments in the field. By embracing a holistic approach to knowledge, nurses can remain adaptable and resilient, delivering care that is both compassionate and evidence-based, thus upholding the core values of the nursing profession. In this ongoing journey, nurses pay homage to the legacy of Florence Nightingale and continue the noble pursuit of excellence in nursing practice.

References

Beauchamp, T. L., & Childress, J. F. (2019). Principles of biomedical ethics (8th ed.). Oxford University Press, USA.

Beckett, C. D. (2021). The evidence-based practice certificate and the nursing professional development evidence-based practice Academy. Journal for Nurses in Professional Development, 37(4), 189-191. https://doi.org/10.1097/nnd.0000000000000772

Betriana, F., Kongsuwan, W., & Mariyana, R. (2022). Aesthetics in nursing practice as experienced by nurses in Indonesia: A phenomenological study. Belitung Nursing Journal, 8(1), 20-27. https://doi.org/10.33546/bnj.1958

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Nurses Role in Medication Management Nursing Essay

Introduction

Nurses play a vital and diverse role when it comes to managing medications. This involves a broad spectrum of duties that directly impact patient safety and the overall quality of healthcare delivery. Indeed, the role of nurses in medication management is multifaceted, encompassing both legal and ethical considerations. Nurses bear a dual responsibility anchored in a framework of legal regulations and ethical principles that guide their practice, particularly when it comes to the intricate task of managing medications. These responsibilities extend beyond the confines of their duty hours, requiring unwavering commitment to adhering to specific guidelines defining their scope of practice, as delineated by the American Nurses Association in 2021. This comprehensive scope meticulously outlines what nurses can and cannot do, specifying their competencies, responsibilities, and qualifications.

The content of this paper delves into the multifaceted responsibilities of nurses in medication management, addressing legal and ethical considerations, the importance of medication safety, mathematical calculations, the application of the nursing process, the influence of regulatory bodies, and the transformative impact of Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN).

Legal and Ethical Considerations

In the world of healthcare, nurses have a dual responsibility: one that is anchored in both the legal framework and ethical principles that guide their profession, particularly when it comes to managing medications. These obligations extend to all moments, whether they’re on duty or off duty. It’s all about adhering closely to the specific guidelines that define their scope of practice, as outlined by the American Nurses Association in 2021. This scope sets out what nurses can and cannot do, specifying their competencies, responsibilities, and qualifications.

One significant facet of a nurse’s role in medication management is administering Over the Counter (OTC) medications. This often demands an in-depth understanding of these non-prescription drugs, as explained by Hood in 2018. Let’s take Nurofen, for example, a commonly used OTC pain reliever containing ibuprofen as its active ingredient, as described by Moore et al., (2015). Handling such medications brings up various legal and ethical issues, particularly when caring for vulnerable patient groups.

Elderly patients, for instance, deserve special attention due to their heightened vulnerability to the side effects of medications like ibuprofen, as highlighted by Moore et al., (2015). When dealing with this demographic, nurses need to be extra cautious and consider the potential for adverse events. Similarly, patients with kidney or liver problems add another layer of complexity, demanding careful assessment and monitoring to prevent any harm, as discussed by Hood in 2018.

Additionally, nurses must be acutely aware of possible drug interactions, especially when giving ibuprofen to patients who are also taking other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or medications that might worsen underlying conditions. Such interactions can lead to unwanted consequences like worsened asthma, rhinitis, or urticaria. This underscores the importance of a comprehensive understanding of the patient’s medication history and potential contraindications.

Furthermore, nurses are bound by ethical principles that shape their practice, such as autonomy, beneficence, and non-maleficence, as laid out by the American Nurses Association in 2021. Autonomy means respecting a patient’s right to make decisions about their medications and ensuring they are well-informed about the potential risks and benefits. Beneficence urges nurses to act in the best interests of their patients, striving to achieve positive outcomes. Conversely, non-maleficence emphasizes the importance of precise medication administration to prevent adverse effects and errors, aligning with the fundamental principle of “do no harm.”

The Role of Nurses in Medication Safety

Nurses play a crucial role in ensuring medication safety within healthcare settings. The significance of this role cannot be overstated, given the widespread impact of medication errors on patient well-being and healthcare costs. Medication errors have been recognized as a global concern, leading to substantial harm and financial burdens on healthcare systems (Hensher & McGain, 2020). In the United States, in particular, these errors have been associated with a significant number of patient deaths, with a majority of these errors occurring during the prescription-to-administration phase (Institute of Medicine, 2006).

One of the fundamental strategies for mitigating the risks associated with medication administration is the adherence to the “seven rights” of medication administration (Partin, 2006). These seven rights encompass ensuring the right dose, right route, right time, right individual, right medication, right expiration date/effect, and right documentation (Di Simone et al., 2020). Each of these rights plays a crucial role in preventing medication errors and their potential consequences. Neglecting any one of these rights can lead to severe adverse outcomes, including overdose and the administration of incorrect drugs.

To further underscore the importance of these rights, consider a scenario where a nurse overlooks the right route of administration and administers a medication intravenously that was meant to be given orally. Such an error could result in rapid drug absorption, potentially leading to life-threatening consequences. Therefore, it is paramount that nurses remain vigilant and meticulous in adhering to the seven rights at all times.

In addition to the seven rights, nurses must also take steps to verify the identity of the patient, heed safety alerts, and employ the correct administration routes and techniques. Patient identification is a critical step in preventing medication errors, as administering medication to the wrong individual can have severe consequences. Safety alerts, often provided by electronic health record systems or medication administration software, offer valuable information about potential drug interactions, allergies, or contraindications that must be considered before medication administration. Furthermore, the choice of administration route and technique must align with the medication’s prescribed guidelines to ensure efficacy and safety.

Math and Calculations in Drug Safety

Accurate medication dosage calculations are paramount in ensuring patient safety within healthcare settings. Nurses must possess the proficiency to calculate dosages with precision using various mathematical techniques, with dimensional analysis being a fundamental approach (Elonen, et al., 2021). Dimensional analysis is particularly useful for calculating dosages in various forms, including flow rates, oral dosages, and timed calculations.

Dimensional analysis involves breaking down the dosage calculation into its fundamental units and then systematically converting these units to the desired form. For example, when determining the flow rate for an intravenous (IV) infusion, nurses must consider factors such as the volume of medication to be administered, the time it should be infused over, and the calibration of the IV tubing. Accurate calculations are essential to avoid over-infusion or under-infusion, which can lead to adverse effects or therapeutic failure.

In addition to dimensional analysis, nurses must also be adept at handling unit conversions, such as converting grams to milligrams or milliliters to liters. This skill is crucial when dealing with medications provided in different units from those prescribed. Mistakes in unit conversions can result in incorrect dosages and jeopardize patient safety.

Furthermore, nurses should be proficient in working with ratios and fractions as they pertain to medication calculations. Medication orders often require dosage adjustments based on patient-specific factors like age, weight, and condition. Pediatric patients, in particular, demand individualized dosing based on their weight, emphasizing the importance of these mathematical skills (Willihnganz et al., 2019).

Application of the Nursing Process for Safety

The nursing process is a fundamental framework in nursing practice, consisting of five key phases: patient assessment, nursing diagnosis, planning, intervention, and evaluation (Willihnganz et al., 2019). This systematic approach forms the bedrock of patient care and is instrumental in ensuring patient safety, particularly in the context of medication administration.

Patient assessment is the initial and crucial step in the nursing process. It involves gathering comprehensive information about the patient’s health status, including past medication history and allergies (Elonen, et al., 2021). This information is essential to ensure proper medication therapy and to prevent potential complications. Patients may have allergies or sensitivities to specific medications, and overlooking this critical detail can lead to severe allergic reactions or adverse drug events. Moreover, understanding the patient’s medication history, including prior treatments and their outcomes, is vital for making informed decisions about the current medication plan.

Nursing diagnoses, the second phase of the nursing process, play a pivotal role in identifying safety risks related to medication administration. Nurses use their clinical judgment to assess drug interactions, evaluate the potential for adverse effects, and determine the need for antidotes if adverse reactions occur. For instance, recognizing potential interactions between multiple medications a patient is taking is essential in preventing harmful drug-drug interactions. Identifying high-risk patients or populations prone to medication-related complications, such as the elderly or those with specific comorbidities, is also part of nursing diagnosis.

Planning and intervention phases involve developing and implementing a comprehensive care plan based on the information gathered during the assessment and nursing diagnosis phases. This includes setting specific goals for medication therapy, designing strategies to minimize risks, and educating patients about their medications, including potential side effects and adverse reactions. The nursing process provides a structured framework for ensuring that medication administration aligns with best practices and safety protocols.

Finally, the evaluation phase allows nurses to assess the effectiveness of their interventions and the patient’s response to medication therapy. If there are adverse effects or inadequate therapeutic responses, adjustments can be made promptly to ensure patient safety and optimal treatment outcomes.

Regulatory and Governing Bodies’ Role in Patient Safety

Ensuring patient safety in healthcare is not solely the responsibility of healthcare providers but is also overseen and regulated by various governing bodies and agencies. These entities play a pivotal role in setting standards, guidelines, and regulations to safeguard patients from potential harm related to medication errors and other healthcare-related risks.

One of the most prominent regulatory bodies in the United States is the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The FDA is responsible for approving and monitoring medications, ensuring their safety, efficacy, and quality. The agency’s rigorous review process evaluates the benefits and potential risks of medications before they are available for use in clinical practice. The agency also monitors post-marketing safety data and takes action when adverse events or safety concerns arise (FDA, 2023).

The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) is another critical player in patient safety, overseeing healthcare facilities participating in these federal programs. CMS evaluates hospital performance, including medication safety practices, and implements various programs and regulations to incentivize healthcare providers to enhance patient safety outcomes (CMS, 2023).

At the state level, State Boards of Nursing are responsible for regulating nursing practice. These boards establish scope of practice guidelines, including the administration of medications, and monitor nursing licenses to ensure that nurses adhere to safe and ethical practices (National Council of State Boards of Nursing, 2023).

International organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) also contribute significantly to patient safety efforts. WHO develops global patient safety initiatives, guidelines, and campaigns that promote best practices in medication safety, infection control, and other critical areas (WHO, 2018).

These regulatory and governing bodies serve as critical pillars of patient safety by setting standards, conducting oversight, and enforcing regulations. Their efforts are aimed at promoting the safe and effective use of medications, reducing medication errors, and ultimately improving the overall quality of healthcare.

Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN)

Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN) is an initiative that has significantly impacted the nursing profession by promoting and enhancing patient safety and the delivery of high-quality healthcare. Developed by the American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) and the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF), QSEN focuses on integrating essential knowledge, skills, and attitudes related to quality and safety into nursing education and practice (AACN, 2023).

One of the primary goals of QSEN is to equip nursing students and practicing nurses with the competencies required to deliver safe and effective care in a rapidly evolving healthcare environment. These competencies are organized into six domains:

• Patient-Centered Care: Nurses are trained to recognize and respect each patient’s unique values, preferences, and needs. This includes effective communication, cultural competence, and shared decision-making to ensure that care aligns with the individual patient’s goals (QSEN Institute, 2022).
• Teamwork and Collaboration: Collaboration is fundamental in healthcare, and QSEN emphasizes the importance of interprofessional teamwork. Nurses learn to work effectively with other healthcare professionals to provide coordinated and patient-centered care (QSEN Institute, 2022).
• Evidence-Based Practice (EBP): EBP is a cornerstone of QSEN. Nurses are encouraged to integrate the best available evidence, clinical expertise, and patient preferences into their decision-making processes to improve patient outcomes (QSEN Institute, 2022).
• Quality Improvement (QI): QSEN equips nurses with the skills to actively participate in quality improvement initiatives. Nurses are taught to identify opportunities for improvement, implement evidence-based interventions, and monitor outcomes to enhance the quality of care (QSEN Institute, 2022).
• Safety: Patient safety is at the forefront of QSEN. Nurses learn to identify and mitigate risks, prevent errors, and create a culture of safety in healthcare settings (QSEN Institute, 2022).
• Informatics: In the digital age of healthcare, informatics is crucial. Nurses are trained to use information and technology effectively to support patient care, make informed decisions, and communicate data accurately (QSEN Institute, 2022).

QSEN has influenced nursing education curricula across the United States and beyond, emphasizing the importance of preparing nurses to be safe and effective practitioners. It has been integrated into nursing programs, shaping the way nursing students are educated and evaluated. Additionally, practicing nurses have benefited from QSEN’s principles through continuing education and professional development opportunities.

Conclusion

In conclusion, nurses are the cornerstone of patient medication safety, tasked with preventing potentially life-threatening errors and ensuring optimal therapeutic outcomes. Their multifaceted role encompasses adherence to legal and ethical frameworks, adherence to the “seven rights” of medication administration, meticulous mathematical calculations, and a commitment to the nursing process.

By upholding these high standards and diligently following best practices, nurses make a profound and lasting impact on safeguarding the well-being of patients in healthcare settings. Their unwavering dedication to patient medication safety is fundamental in preventing errors and ensuring that healthcare remains a trusted and reliable source of healing and care. As the healthcare landscape continues to evolve, nurses will continue to play a pivotal role in shaping a safer, more patient-centered, and higher quality healthcare system.

References

American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN). (2023). Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN). https://www.aacnnursing.org/Quality-Resources/QSEN

American Nurses Association. (2021). Code of Ethics for Nurses with Interpretive Statements. https://www.nursingworld.org/practice-policy/nursing-excellence/ethics/code-of-ethics-for-nurses/

Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS). (2023, September 6). Quality measures. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services | CMS. https://www.cms.gov/medicare/quality/measures

Di Simone E, Fabbian F, Giannetta N, Dionisi S, Renzi E, Cappadona R, Di Muzio M, Manfredini R. Risk of medication errors and nurses’ quality of sleep: a national cross-sectional web survey study. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2020 Jun;24(12):7058-7062. doi: 10.26355/eurrev_202006_21699. PMID: 32633400.

Elonen, I., Salminen, L., Brasaitė‐Abromė, I., Fuster, P., Kukkonen, P., Leino‐Kilpi, H., Löyttyniemi, E., Noonan, B., Stubner, J., Svavarsdóttir, M. H., Thorsteinsson, H., & Koskinen, S. (2021). Medication calculation skills of graduating nursing students within European context. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 31(5-6), 548-558. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.15908

Food and Drug Administration (FDA). (2023). About FDA. https://www.fda.gov/about-fda

Hensher, M., & McGain, F. (2020). Health care sustainability metrics: Building a safer, low-carbon health system. Health Affairs, 39(12), 2080-2087. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2020.01103

Hood, L. (2018). Leddy & Pepper’s Professional Nursing (9th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Institute of Medicine. (2006). Preventing Medication Errors: Quality Chasm Series. National Academies Press.

Moore, R. A., Wiffen, P. J., Derry, S., Maguire, T., Roy, Y. M., & Tyrrell, L. (2015). Non-prescription (OTC) oral analgesics for acute pain – an overview of Cochrane reviews. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd010794.pub2

National Council of State Boards of Nursing. (2023). About NCSBN. https://www.ncsbn.org/About.htm

Partin, B. (2006). Preventing medication errors. The Nurse Practitioner, 31(12), 8. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.npr.0000393076.25047.72.

Quality and Safety Education for Nurses (QSEN). (2022). QSEN competencies. QSEN. https://www.qsen.org/competencies-pre-licensure-ksas

Willihnganz, M., Gurevitz, S. L., & Clayton, B. D. (2019). Clayton’s basic pharmacology for nurses – E-book. Elsevier Health Sciences.

World Health Organization (WHO). (2018, August 27). Patient safety in the western Pacific. https://www.who.int/westernpacific/health-topics/patient-safety

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